Skip to main content

Table 1 Maternal lifestyle factors and the risk of offspring with congenital heart defects

From: Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy and congenital heart defects in offspring: review of the current evidence

Maternal lifestyle factors

Study design

Study period

Outcome

Exposure

OR(95% CI)

Reference

Cigarette smoking

Meta-ananlysis

1971-1999

CHD combined

Smoking

1.07(0.98-1.17)

[8]

Meta-ananlysis

1959-2010

CHD combined

Smoking

1.09(1.02-1.17)

[9]

Meta-ananlysis

1971-2011

CHD combined

Smoking

1.11(1.02-1.21)

[10]

VSD

Smoking

1.44(1.16-1.79)

Case-control

1997-2008

CHD combined

Smoking, BMI ≥25 kg/m2

2.65(1.20-5.87)

[11]

Septal defects

Smoking, BMI ≥25 kg/m2

2.60(1.05-6.47)

Outflow tract anomalies

Smoking, BMI ≥25 kg/m2

3.58(1.46-8.79)

Case-control

1997-2005

AVSD

Smoking

1.50(1.10- 2.40)

[12]

Alcohol consumption

Case-control

1987-1988

CTD

Drink less than once a week

1.30(1.10-1.90)

[13]

Drink once a week or more

1.90(1.00-1.34)

Case-control

1999-2003

TGA

Drink less than one day per week

2.10(1.10- 3.20)

[14]

Cohort

1996-2002

VSD

Low-to-moderate levels of alcohol

1.10(0.54- 2.23)

[15]

ASD

Low-to-moderate levels of alcohol

0.66(0.27- 1.62)

Case-control

1996-2005

CHD combined

Binge drinking

2.99(1.19- 7.51)

[16]

Cohort

1983-2007

ASD

Alcohol Diagnosis

1.36(1.14- 1.63)

[17]

VSD

Alcohol Diagnosis

1.77(1.27 2.46)

Cohort

2002-2010

CHD combined

Alcohol use

1.90(1.70- 2.00)

[18]

Case-control

1999-2005

CHD combined

Drink several times a week

1.73(0.52- 5.70)

[19]

Drink several times a month

1.34(0.79-2.24)

Illicit drug use

Case-control

1968-1980

VSD

Cannabis use

2.35(1.43- 3.86)

[20]

Cannabis use for three or more days per week

3.73(1.56- 8.96)

Case-control

1981-1989

VSD

Cocaine

2.99(1.69-5.30)

[21]

Case-control

1981-1989

Single ventricle

Marijuana

0.90(0.10- 6.90)

[22]

Caffeine Use

Systematic review

1966-2004

CHD combined

Coffee

1.10(0.90- 1.50)

[23]

Tea

1.00(0.90-1.20)

Case-control

1996-1998

CHD in Down syndrome

Any caffeine

0.89(0.42-1.88)

[24]

Coffee

0.75(0.39-1.44)

Tea

1.11(0.60-2.03)

Cola

0.69(0.38-1.27)

Cocoa

3.95(0.81-19.2)

Case-control

1991-1993

CHD in Down syndrome

≥4 cups of coffee vs. <4 cups

1.50(0.70-3.30)

[25]

BMI

Meta-ananlysis

1996-2008

CHD combined

Obesity

1.30(1.12-1.51)

[26]

Septal anomalies

Obesity

1.20(1.09-1.31)

TOF

Obesity

1.10(0.76-1.61)

TGA

Obesity

1.41(0.97-2.06)

Meta-ananlysis

1969-2012

CHD combined

Overweight

1.08(1.02-1.15)

[27]

Moderate obesity

1.15(1.11-1.20)

Severe obesity

1.39(1.31-1.47)

TOF

Severe obesity

1.94(1.49-2.51)

AVS

Underweight

1.47(1.01-2.15)

Case-control

2004-2009

PAS

Obesity

1.36(1.17-1.58)

[28]

TOF

Obesity

1.62(1.30-2.02)

TGA

Obesity

1.45(1.16-1.80)

VSD

Obesity

1.15(1.07-1.23)

Psychological factors

Case-control

1978-2008

CHD combined

Bereavement

1.11(1.00-1.22)

[29]

Case-control

2004-2005

CHD combined

Mental stress

3.93(1.94-7.94)

[30]

Case-control

1996-2005

CHD combined

High stress level vs. low stress level

0.74(0.45-1.22)

[25]

  1. Abbreviation: CHD, congenital heart defect; VSD, Ventricular Septal Defect; ASD, Atrial Septal Defect; TOF, Tetralogy of Fallot; TGA, Transposition of the Great Arteries; AVSD, Atrioventricular Septal Defect; CTD,Conotruncal defects; PVS, Pulmonary valve stenosis; COA, Coarctation of the aorta; AVS, Aortic valve stenosis; PAS, pulmonary artery stenosis.