Table 6 Risk factors for vitamin D deficiency in the first year of life

• Non-Caucasian ethnicity with dark skin pigmentation

• Inadequate diets (i.e. vegan diet)

• Chronic kidney disease

• Hepatic failure and/or cholestasis

• Malabsorption syndromes (i.e. cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel diseases, celiac disease at diagnosis, etc.)

• Chronic therapies: anticonvulsants, systemic glucocorticoids, antiretroviral therapy, systemic antifungals (i.e. ketoconazole)

• Infants born from mothers with multiple risk factors for vitamin D deficiency, particularly in absence of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy