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Table 7 Risk factors for vitamin D deficiency between 1 and 18 years of age

From: Vitamin D in pediatric age: consensus of the Italian Pediatric Society and the Italian Society of Preventive and Social Pediatrics, jointly with the Italian Federation of Pediatricians

• Non-Caucasian ethnicity with dark skin pigmentation

• Reduced sunlight exposure (due to lifestyle factors, chronic illness or hospitalization, complex disability, institutionalization, covering clothing for religious or cultural reasons) and/or constant use of sunscreens

• International adoption

• Obesity

• Inadequate diets (i.e. vegan diet)

• Chronic kidney disease

• Hepatic failure and/or cholestasis

• Malabsorption syndromes (i.e. cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel diseases, celiac disease at diagnosis, etc.)

• Chronic therapies: anticonvulsants, systemic glucocorticoids, antiretroviral therapy, systemic antifungals (i.e. ketoconazole)