• Non-Caucasian ethnicity with dark skin pigmentation | |
• Reduced sunlight exposure (due to lifestyle factors, chronic illness or hospitalization, complex disability, institutionalization, covering clothing for religious or cultural reasons) and/or constant use of sunscreens | |
• International adoption | |
• Obesity | |
• Inadequate diets (i.e. vegan diet) | |
• Chronic kidney disease | |
• Hepatic failure and/or cholestasis | |
• Malabsorption syndromes (i.e. cystic fibrosis, inflammatory bowel diseases, celiac disease at diagnosis, etc.) | |
• Chronic therapies: anticonvulsants, systemic glucocorticoids, antiretroviral therapy, systemic antifungals (i.e. ketoconazole) |